Table 1 Rating-scale items used for the analysis of articles, based on Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction

Authenticity

Scenarios are based on real-life tasks

Trainees receive relevant theoretical information before they start to work on the scenario(s)

Trainees receive guidance while they are working on the scenario(s)

Scenarios differ from each other to the same extent as real-life tasks

Scenarios are sequenced from simple to complex

Trainees are encouraged to compare and contrast scenarios

Activation of prior knowledge

Trainees are required to activate their relevant prior knowledge and experience

Trainees are encouraged to connect their past experience to new ideas, skills, and attitudes they are expected to learn

Trainees receive a protocol that helps them to organize the new things they learn

Trainees have the opportunity to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and attitudes they have already mastered before the training

Demonstration

Trainees are given demonstrations of the skills and/or models of the behaviors they are expected to learn

Trainees are given examples of errors, mistakes, and things that can easily go wrong

Trainees’ attention is directed to skills, information, and attitudes that are most relevant and/or important

Trainees receive multiple demonstrations that represent alternative ways of performing the skills that need to be learned

Trainees receive demonstrations not as simple descriptions but in a lifelike fashion (e.g., real-life modeling, video, animation)

Trainees learn steps that contain non-observable decision-making and reasoning processes

Application

Trainees have opportunities to practice or try out what has been learned

Trainees are tested on new scenarios to see if they can apply what has been learned

Trainees’ errors when solving problems, doing learning tasks, or completing assignments are detected and they receive feedback on these

Trainees are required to predict challenges and/or explain causes of undesirable outcomes

Trainees collaborate with peers to enhance their learning

Integration/transfer

Trainees have the opportunity to reflect on, discuss with others, and defend what they have learned

Trainees have the opportunity to explore how they can personally use what they learned

Trainees are able to publicly demonstrate to others what they have learned